GENTRIFICATION AND THE CHANGING METROPOLITAN AREA

BY STUDENT

New York City has many names – the City That Never Sleeps, the Melting Pot (or for some, a salad bowl), the Big Apple, the Capital of the World, and the Center of the Universe – some of which a bit contrived and grandiose, but all of which speak to New York City’s unique character. The city – most especially Manhattan – is often identified by its ethnically and racially diverse population and the incredibly unique amalgamation of cultures that coexist within its borders. As a native New Yorker, I can personally attest to the wide variety of people and cultures I experience every single day. Diversity is expressed in the ethnic cuisines of the restaurants lining the avenues, in the various communities downtown, in stores and markets selling unique items, and of course in the people themselves – their language, wardrobe, and mannerisms. What is then surprising is where the rich patchwork of nationalities and cultures is absent. How does a lack of representation – whether intentional or not – in different areas of the city, such as museums,  affect public perception of minority groups in New York City? 

Perhaps one of my favorite places in Manhattan is the Metropolitan Museum of Art (the Met), an art museum located on the edge of Central Park on the Upper East Side. The museum has several sections in which they categorize their historical or ethnic pieces: the American Wing, famous oil paintings from US History; Ancient Near Eastern Art, works representing several centuries of Arab history up to the 7th century AD; Arms & Armor, collection of armor pieces and tools from various periods in history; Arts of Africa, Oceania & the Americas, brings together sculptures, artifacts, and art from sub-Saharan Africa, the Pacific Islands, and North, Central, and South America; Asian Art, one of the largest collections of art and works from Asia’s long history; Egyptian Art, over 20 thousand pieces of art and discovered artifacts to represent Egypt from the Paleolithic Era to the Roman invasion; European Paintings, primarily 13th to 19th century paintings by European artists; European Sculpture & Decorative Arts, chronicles the progression of sculpture through 50 thousand pieces across five centuries; Greek & Roman Art (my personal favorite), includes over 15 thousand pieces spanning from the Neolithic period to Constantine’s conversion to Christianity in the early 4th century AD; Islamic Art, represents art from the 7th to 19th centuries to reflect the traditions of Islam; and, Medieval Art & the Cloisters, covering the Mediterranean and Europe from the falloff Rome to the start of the Renaissance (metmuseum.org). What is notable in this list is two-fold. First, there are several, separated sections for various periods or types of European art as well as a heavy focus on ancient periods. Second, there is only one wing – the Arts of Africa, Oceania & the Americas section – devoted to a huge range of history, culture, and people. More importantly, the groups all collected together represent minorities in this country. Separate minority and marginalized populations being represented as one cohesive unit simply does not depict the nuances of their distinct cultures with the same devotion the Met shows European cultures. 

As Arlene Davila points out several times in the chapter “From Barrio to Mainstream: On the Politics of Latino/a Art Museums”, representation in museums – and particularly in a museum as renowned as the Met – is a crucial marker in determining whether various ethnic and racial groups are being treated equally in the places where museums are. There is particular emphasis put in the idea that a community’s museum needs to accurately reflect the community’s “constituency” (Davila), which basically means that a museum has an obligation – just as politicians do – to show all aspects of the community as they really are. Davila notes the importance that a group’s representation in museums is in constructing an image and character for specifically ethnic or racial groups in cities. Essentially, however a museum chooses to portray a certain group or period of history has significant influence outside the walls of the museum and can go so far as to effect social relations and political power. If the Met is devoting so little individual attention to such diverse groups coming from sub-Saharan Africa, the Pacific Islands, and North, Central, and South America, what subtle repercussions does that present? This is an impossible question to answer, but it is absolutely essential that we recognize where inequality of representation is and how it can extend into more serious aspects of life beyond paintings, sculptures, and artifacts.



Bibliography
"Curatorial Departments." The Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Met Museum, n.d. Web. 30 Apr.
2016. <http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-met/curatorial-departments>.

Dávila, Arlene M. "From Barrio to Mainstream: On the Politics of Latino/a Art Museums." Latino
Spin: Public Image and the Whitewashing of Race. New York: New York UP, 2008. N. pag. Print.

RACIAL AND ETHNIC SHIFTS IN THE METROPOLITAN AREA

BY: AA

Racism is a thing of the past, right?! WRONG! Clear cut racism, like someone saying they will not serve you because you are of a certain race, as well as a less visible, institutionalized racism is unfortunately still evident in today’s society. The suburbs of the United States are no exception to this. According to The New Suburban History, “more than half of all Americans now live in ‘suburbia.’” Typically, suburban areas in the United States are stereotypically thought to be inhabited by predominantly white and conservative people (Jones-Correa 2006). What does institutionalized racism, like discriminatory housing policies, look like on Long Island? To answer this question, we are going to focus on the villages of Hempstead and Garden City as well as a town known as Levittown, all located on Long Island in Nassau County.

For those of you unfamiliar with Long Island, it is off the coast of the northeastern United States that is part of the state of New York. It contains four counties including Suffolk County, Nassau County, Queens County, and Kings County, respectively in order from East to West. (For those of you who are very unfamiliar with the Island, here is a simple photo showing the counties on Long Island so you can get a better idea of the space we are discussing.) 

https://www.google.com/search?q=long+island+counties&client=safari&hl=en-us&prmd=minv&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi_7NTyvLfMAhXmkoMKHerGC04Q_AUICCgC&biw=375&bih=559#imgrc=-6AkbQuLzUQYAM%3A

So, to continue, Kings County and Queens County are considered to be more urban and more of a part of New York City, while Suffolk County and Nassau County are much more suburban. Garden City is a predominantly white and rich neighborhood, while Hempstead is mostly a poor community of ethno-racial minorities. To be exact, Hempstead has a population that is ninety-two percent Black and Latino while Garden City has a population that is eighty-eight percent white (Resnick and Stamm). Speaking in socio-economic terms, the household income of those in Hempstead is approximately fifty-two thousand dollars while the household income is around one hundred fifty thousand in Garden City. In addition, the values of homes in the two different villages vary greatly, which I believe also shows the racial discrepancies that plague the areas. To be more exact, the median listing for a home in Garden City is nine hundred ninety-seven thousand four hundred ninety-nine dollars and the median listing for a home in Hempstead is two hundred sixty-nine thousand nine hundred ninety dollars. City officials make sure to take care of Garden City, while they do not ensure the same practices for Hempstead. Pot holes can go months on end without being fixed in Hempstead, while a fallen tree branch in Garden City will be removed that same day (Richter).

This subtler form of racism is not the only form of racism, though. Long Island has a history of racial segregation and discriminatory practices, especially when it comes to housing policies. The town known as Levittown was established in 1947 by Abraham Levitt and his two sons, Bill and Alfred. It was created to be a Post-World War II, white picket fence, perfect suburban town… but what was Mr. Levitt’s idea of perfect? White people only. According to Crystal Gaylean, black people were not allowed to buy homes in Levittown, even though this was unconstitutional. It literally stated directly in the lease that “the tenant agrees not to permit the premises to be used or occupied by any person other than members of the Caucasian race” (Gaylean). Unbelievable! It was not until 1957 when a black family moved in because a previous homeowner decided to go against Mr. Levitt’s wishes and sell them their home. Crazy, right?! As a native Long Islander, I had no idea how bad the racial discrimination and segregation really was on the Island! Looking forward, hopefully we can work together to create change for the future. Be the change you wish to see in the world…

References

Galyean, Crystal. “20^th Century Levittown – The Imperfect Rise of the American             Suburbs.” U.S. History Scene. U.S. History Scene, 2016. Web. 9 April 2016.

Jones-Correa, Michael. The New Suburban History. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006. Print.

Resnick, Brian and Stephanie Stamm. “The State of Segregation in the Suburbs.” The        Atlantic. The Atlantic Monthly Group, 7 January 2015. Web. 12 April 2016.

Richter, Allan. “Black and White on Long Island: Like Oil and Water.” The New York Times. The New York Times Company, 16 June 2002. Web. 12 April 2016.

GENTRIFICATION AND THE CHANGING METROPOLITAN AREA

STRUGGLES FOR HOUSING IN THE RAPIDLY GENTRIFYING CITY  

BY Z.R.

When an individual thinks of gentrification, they may think of many positive aspects of it such as revitalizing ailing communities, improving quality of life and the safer, cleaner neighborhoods it provides. One might also be drawn to the argument that gentrification is part of the natural evolutionary process a city undergoes over time, which it is. However, most city developers and gentrifiers neglect the fact that by restoring these traditionally lower income areas, they are responsible for driving out the thousands of residents who have lived there for decades, leaving them with no other recourse but to move to another area which they can afford. Also, the problem with gentrification is that it doesn’t respect things that were built there before gentrifiers move in. Communities not only see residents forced out but also pre-existing cultures destroyed. Currently, in New York City, the historically black neighborhood of Harlem in Manhattan is being rapidly gentrified by white urban youth. What are the potential effects of white gentrifiers coming into lower-class minority neighborhoods in Harlem and why are these neighborhoods being threatened by gentrification? In this post I argue that even though civilians have a right to the city, it seems only the wealthy have the power to dictate how the city should be shaped as well as the cultural and racial consequences gentrification brings.

Currently, the black population in Harlem is at its lowest point in the past 100 years, while the population of white people continually sees an increase, going from 672 white residents in 2000 to 13,800 in 2008. (Goffe 1) This area was once known as a haven for local blacks in New York City is now an area where you will see white hipsters going to fancy restaurants, drinking imported beer and shopping at new, upscale grocery and designer stores. Rose Hackman notes that if you walk down streets of Harlem today, “you will almost certainly spot more than a few white, middle-class-looking faces – something that would have been inconceivable 20 years ago.” (Hackman 1) These white gentrifiers, deemed pioneers for venturing into such a lower class, black neighborhood, seemingly remembered that Harlem is on the much- coveted island of Manhattan. With cheap rents and an easy commute to the heart of Manhattan, Harlem is now a destination neighborhood for the middle-class working in the city. There would be no problem with that if not for the fact that with the sudden influx of wealth to the area, landlords are requesting higher rents from tenants and storeowners, rents which the low class residents cannot afford. Real estate developers are seeing this as an opportunity to increase profits and purchase land on Harlem. Tenants are being forced out due to the higher rents, new condominiums are being built for the middle class whites and stores that have been in business for years in Harlem have had to close their doors. In 2011, 80% of all shops in Harlem were black owned, compared to 2015 where only 63% of shops are black owned. (Hackman 1) You may ask where do all these displaced people go after losing their shops and apartments. They may move to another lower-class neighborhood in New York City with affordable rent, stay within Harlem just at a place with rent they can afford or have to uproot themselves from New York City altogether and move to another city. With the movement, the culture of Harlem is disappearing. Many local restaurants and shops were vital to the culture and identity of Harlem. Africans who moved to New York City felt comfortable in Harlem and were able to open African stores and restaurants to express the values of their homelands. Harlem was a haven for blacks escaping racial prejudice and discrimination in the south during the 1900s. Now it seems that the pre-existing identities in Harlem are being abandoned in favor of the middle class since they have the money to buy real estate in these places. 

The struggle for living space is becoming increasingly difficult within cities such as New York due to the return to the city movement beginning in the 2000’s.  Families with low incomes are finding it increasingly difficult to find places to live in the city, as people with higher incomes than them are flooding into the city. The amount of affordable housing in cities is disappearing more and more. Gentrification has occurred for years, and seemingly puts a strain on racial relations. While urban renewal was not meant to cause divide, it does through giving more power to the haves, and giving the have not’s the short end of the stick. Blacks are beginning to feel as if their right to the city is becoming less prevalent in favor of affluent whites. David Harvey argues that the freedom to make and remake our cities is a human right, yet it is more often than not neglected. The right to the city is increasingly falling into the hand of the private industry, which places the basic need of affordable housing to the urban lower class under the desire to increase profits through real estate. While we cannot escape the fact that new housing will always be taken by the wealthy, we can do more to help out lower class residents by putting pressure on city governments to offer greater opportunity and put a greater emphasis on public housing developments. For gentrification to be a successful tool of reenergizing neighborhoods, I believe that a perfect mix of expensive and affordable housing needs to be in place, so every community can thrive and decrease the amount of displaced residents we see in the present day.

Works Cited:

Florida, Richard. "The Closest Look Yet at Gentrification and Displacement." CityLab. November 2, 2015. Accessed April 13, 2016. http://www.citylab.com/housing/2015/11/the-closest-look-yet-at-gentrification-and-displacement/413356/.

Goffe, Leslie. "The Harlem Gentrification: From Black to White - New African Magazine." New African Magazine. June 25, 2014. Accessed April 13, 2016. http://newafricanmagazine.com/harlem-gentrification-black-white/.

Hackman, Rose. "What Will Happen When Harlem Becomes White?" The Guardian. May 13, 2015. Accessed April 13, 2016. http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/may/13/harlem-gentrification-new-york-race-black-white.

Harvey, David. "David Harvey: The Right to the City. New Left Review 53, September-October 2008." New Left Review. Accessed April 27, 2016. https://newleftreview.org/II/53/david-harvey-the-right-to-the-city.

Pattillo, Mary E. Black on the Block: The Politics of Race and Class in the City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.

HOUSING POLICIES AND STRUGGLES FOR INEQUALITY

1960’s MOVEMENT TOWARDS HOUSING EQUALITY IN BOSTON AND ITS SUBURBS 

BY J.B.

The 1960s was a time of much social unrest in the state of Massachusetts. Many social equality movements made their way through the Bay State, such as the Civil Rights Movement, LGBT Movement, all followed by the Women’s Liberation Movement towards the end of the decade. Fair housing communities began to emerge in the late 1950s early 1960s in the wealthier suburbs of Boston that lined route 128. Upwards of 2000 bay state residents had joined a grass roots campaign to advocate against racial discrimination in housing policies. The Boston network which eventually would include “thirty-five hundred members and thirty-seven chapters, became the largest and most active example of a national phenomenon” (Geismer 545). During a time, where many other cities, of the same magnitude or larger, were witnessing the phenomena of white flight, Boston suburbs were welcoming in minorities, and advocating for racial tolerance and equality. For example, Hazelton, Pennsylvania enacted an ordinance to prevent Mexican Americans and other minorities from renting apartments by fining landlords who did not check their immigration papers. However, Boston was doing exactly the opposite welcoming diversity into their neighborhoods and suburbs with open arms (Bender Chp 6). Historians observed how whites typically opposed fair housing legislation rather than advocate for integrated suburbs. Suburban towns such as Belmont, Brookline, Concord, Newton, Lexington, and Wellesley strived to raise tolerance for residential assimilation and help individual African American families find homes within these communities (Geismer 455). Organizations such as the Massachusetts Federation of Fair Housing Committee, formed in the mid 1960s and its goals and ideals were spread through other major metropolises such as New York, New Jersey, and Chicago to Seattle, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.

Boston’s South End neighborhood began an urban renewal project during the 1960s as well, which would “clean up” this historically poor and decrepit neighborhood. The neighborhood today still holds the same character it did when it was first built. Currently, the South End neighborhood is listed as National Historic District, for its streets lined with charming brownstone, small squares, quaint parks and tree-lined boulevards. It has also been awarded the title of the largest preserved Victorian neighborhood in the United States. The expansion of the Back Bay neighborhood in the 1860s pulled many of the wealthier families that had first occupied the area out of the South End, leaving behind only working class families. In the 1930s, the Great Depression had hit Boston and its surrounding neighborhoods hard. Many of the textile mills that had once been the heart of the bay state economy, had moved south along with work, leaving many Bostonians without a job, and causing the neighborhood to fall into a downward spiral for decades to come. Following the construction of the prudential center, young white collar couples moved into the area. Unhappy with the negative connotations of the neighborhood and the current state of decay, they formed neighborhood associations to assist in the politician lead clean up of the area.

The Boston Redevelopment Authority saw it as “equally important was the emphasis on community participation in its design, development, maintenance, and re-design. The shift from a top-down, bureaucratic approach to creating urban open space, to one based on experience, observation, and analysis of the neighborhoods and communities for which they were intended, was seen as desirable not only because it would simply provide badly-needed open space, but also because it would improve its quality and sustainability” (Meehan 20). However, many of these associations were comprised of primarily white middle class residents, and were seen as the gentrifiers of South End.  Many minorities feared the negative effects of displacement, which led city officials to legislate policies to keep the poor in the neighborhood by establishing publicly, funded housing projects (McDonald 175). The Boston Redevelopment Association, along with neighborhood associations, and the Massachusetts Federation of Fair Housing Committee understood the importance of promoting racial equality in housing policies. During the early 1960s Boston laid claim to the most expansive fair rights laws in the nation. Boston and its surrounding neighborhoods would be the front-runner in the nationwide movement towards housing equality. These suburban residents lead a movement that would later transform ideas and laws about racial equality. This would have long lasting influence on local, state, and national policy and politics.

Works Cited

Bender, Steven. Tierra Y Libertad: Land, Liberty, and Latino Housing. New York, NY: New York UP, 2010. Print.

Geismer, Lily. "Good Neighbors for Fair Housing: Suburban Liberalism and Racial Inequality in Metropolitan Boston." Journal of Urban History 39.3 (2012): 454-77. Web. 19 Apr. 2016.

Mcdonald, Scott C. "Does Gentrification Affect Crime Rates?" Crime and Justice 8 (1986): 163-201. JSTOR. Web. 04 Apr. 2016.

Meehan, Angela Elizabeth. Community in the Garden in the Community: The Development of an Open Space Resource in Boston's South End. Thesis. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute Of Technology, 2007. MIT Libraries. Web. 02 Apr. 2016.



HOUSING POLICIES AND STRUGGLES FOR INEQUALITY

 

LATINO HOUSING DISCRIMINATION

BY STUDENT

Throughout the history of the United States, Latinos have been pushed aside in the search for the American Dream. While Latinos encompass many different nationalities and ethnicities stereotypes that effect all Latinos still persist. In the housing market there has been an unfortunate history of housing discrimination on the Latino population of the United States. While discrimination based on national origin in the housing market was prohibited by the Fair Housing Act of 1968, there are still more than four million incidents of housing discrimination within the United States every year (NCLR). How can this sort of discrimination in the United States and how is it seen in places like San Antonio, Texas, which has a growing Latino presence?

In the United States housing discrimination is unavoidable for those of Latino descent that fit the mold of the typical Latino. These stereotypes are harshest on Latino men that have a thick accident. A major belief is that Latino men are dangerous and are working with the major cartels that are found within nations that they descend from. The stereotypes of what a Latino “looks” like allows relators and those working within the housing market to discriminate in various ways. In the view of some Americans there is a standard that they place on all Latinos. These stereotypes vary from that they are violent to that all Latinos are dependent on government for assistance to that Latinos were not productive economic actors within their communities. In a recent study performed by the University of Cincinnati, 2,150 Ohio phone surveys led the research team to determine that Latinos were viewed the most negatively in comparison to Asian, European or Middle Eastern immigrants. (Gates) Those who were surveyed also shared that they believed that Latino immigrants would lower the quality of education in school districts, leads to a higher rate of unemployment and a lower degree of wealth. These stereotypes carry over into the housing markets in that in many places throughout the United States Latino families are struggling to get affordable homes. In an experiment that was conducted in San Antonio, Texas in recent years, Latino and white non-Latino potential buyers with nearly identical profiles tried to receive assistance in mortgaging a home. In this study, it was determined that housing agents were less likely to even schedule an appointment with the Latino clients to their white counterparts. Also from this study it was seen that the agents that did meet with potential Latino buyers “quoted higher fees, costs and/or more extensive application requirements.” (NCLR) When looking at this study it is clearly evident that there is housing discrimination that is placed on the Latino population. Something that is also to be noted is that a 2010 census showed that San Antonio was ranked number nine on the list of the metro areas within the United States with the largest Latino population. (Frey) As an increasing population, they will require homes to house the new influx of Latinos and there is a struggle for the incoming population to find reasonably priced homes. In places like San Antonio and throughout the country as a whole, scores of the Latino population are struggling to obtain fair mortgage rates and adequate agents. As discussed by Steven Bender in his book “Tierra y Libertad: Land, Liberty and Latino Housing” he made an observation that communities that were seen to have a high level of minorities were considered to be “red zones” in which they would raise the interest rates on the mortgages of this population and therefore many Latinos with prime credit scores were struggling to keep up with the growing rates.

           

To look into housing discrimination of the United States is just a portion of the problems that face the Latino population every day. While Latinos strive for the American dream of owning a home and living in a good community, housing discrimination is preventing the dream from flourishing. While the Fair Housing Act is a good start, it must be enforced in order to be able to truly effective and other steps must be taken to stop the over four million instances of housing discrimination.  

Works Cited

Bender, Steven. "Lenders and Loss: The Destructive Legacy of Subprime Mortgages in Latino/a

Communities." Tierra Y Libertad: Land, Liberty, and Latino Housing. New York, NY: New York UP, 2010. N. pag. Print.

Frey, Williams H. "The New Metro Minority Map: Regional Shifts in Hispanics, Asians and

Blacks." Metropolitan Policy Program. State of Metropolitan America, n.d. Web.

Gates, Sara. "Impact Of Latino Stereotypes: Latin Americans Viewed Most Negatively In

Immigrant Comparison Study." The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, n.d. Web. 18 Apr. 2016.

NCLR. "New Report Uncovers Housing Discrimination Against Latinos." NCLR Blog. N.p., 22

July 2013. Web. 18 Apr. 2016.